ILO - Education, employment and training policies and programmes for youth with disabilities in four European Countries

EMPLOYMENT AND TRAINING PAPERS
21

Education, employment and training
policies and programmes
for youth with disabilities
in four
European countries

Action Programme on Youth Unemployment

Clement Russell

Foreword

Acknowledgements

1. Introduction

2. General employment conditions for people with disabilities and youths with disabilities

3. Denmark: Employment and training policies for youth with disabilities

4. Germany: Employment and training policies for youth with disabilities

5. Spain: Employment and training policies for youth with disabilities

6. The United Kingdom: Employment and training policies for youth with disabilities

7. Conclusions and recommendations

References

Annexes

Foreword

This paper represents a contribution to the ILO’s Action Programme on Youth Unemployment being undertaken in the 1996-97 biennium. The Action programme is intended to: (I) raise awareness amongst constituents concerning the problems associated with the labour market entry of young people; (ii) to improve their understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of the principal policy and programme options for tackling the problem of youth unemployment and thus, (iii) enhance the capacity of member states to design and implement policies and programmes for promoting youth employment. The Actin programme includes country case studies from all over the world as well as policy reviews concentrating on specific topics within the ambit of the youth unemployment "problem". The country case studies will be used as the basis for unemployment and youth employment policy. The second major output will be a policy manual outlining the implications of the different available policy options.

Naturally, this particular study, which looks at Denmark, Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom falls within the scope of the Actin programme’s objective to disseminate information and promote a better understanding of the advantages and disadvantages associated with policies and programmes addressing the problem of youth unemployment.

All four countries referred to in this study adhere to the principle of equal opportunity and treatment which is the ultimate justification for their policies aimed at preparing young persons with disabilities for regular work. However, the study shows that even with these policies set in place, large numbers of young persons with disabilities in Denmark, Germany, Spain and the United kingdom continue to confront barriers to entry into the work force After a general introduction to the rising concern over the high rates of unemployment of persons with disabilities in the European open labour market, the study presents some of the applied approaches for integrating people with disabilities into training and employment. This includes a discussion on mainstream versus specialized training.

As the relevant methodologies vary from one country to another, the country studies make up the majority of the report and can stand alone from another. The country studies describe existing training and employment policies, vocational guidance and placement schemes, programmes specifically designed for youth with disabilities and concluding remarks. The last chapter of the report includes some initial conclusions as well as recommendations for future research in order to enhance the currently weak body of data on youth and disabilities and concrete action to improve the employment opportunities for young persons with disabilities in Denmark, Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom.

Finally, the report points to the need to carry out more long-term oriented research which involves youth with disabilities, so as to efficiently identify strategies that support their right to work and earn income as members of and contributors to society.

Gek-Boo Ng
Chief
Employment and Labour Market Policies Branch

Acknowledgements

The author would gratefully like to acknowledge the support and assistance provided by Mr. Finn Hansen from the Danish Ministry of Social Affairs, Mr. Henning Sletved from the Danish Ministry of Education, Ms. Susan Moller from the Danish Ministry of Labour, Mrs. Janne Hansen from the Danish Institute for the Blind, Ms. Maria Brenner from the Bundesanstalt für Arbeit, Mr. Friedrich and Mr. Volker Brattig from the Berufsbildungswerk Annastift, Ms. Gisela Keune from Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung, Ms. Rosa Maria Rodriguez from Ministerio De Trabajo y Asuntos Sociales, Mr. Fernando Bellver from Consell Insular de Mallorca, Ms. Marita Iglesias from Iniciativas E Estudios Sociales, Mr. Bob Clowes from the Royal National Institute for Deaf People UK, Mr. Jones Gareth and Mr Stephen Cairns from Scope UK, Mr. Richard Puleston from the Department for Education and Employment UK, Ms. Sue Foord from Enham UK.

Mr. Peter Breen and Ms. Elizabeth Eyster were of great help with the editing of the report. Ms Evy Messell, who works in the Vocational Rehabilitation Branch in the ILO, was responsible for planning and coordinating the study. I would sincerely like to acknowledge her support throughout the process of drafting the report.

1. Introduction

Countries within the European Union are showing rising concern over the high rates of unemployment for people with disabilities and have made concerted efforts to develop policies which better ensure the integration of these individuals into the open labour market. Research has shown that a large number of people with disabilities are excluded from employment because of their inadequate or inappropriate education and training, combined with inaccessibility to the work place (lack of appropriate facilities) and ongoing stereotypes assumed by employers and educators. Therefore, in order to better ensure the integration of people with disabilities in the open labour market, education and training must be better suited to their needs and more informed of the skills demanded by employers. At the same time, integration can only occur when accessibility to the work place is enhanced and stereotypes are deconstructed through increased information sharing.

Throughout the country studies from Denmark, Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom, youth with disabilities are examined within the context of programmes and initiatives for people with disabilities in general and young people in general. Youth with disabilities is a cross cutting theme; in order to fully comprehend the situation these young people face in the labour market, it is essential to look at the wider context.

1.1 General approaches to integrating people with disabilities into employment and training

Although Denmark, Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom are members of the European Union (EU) and have ratified the ILO Convention 159 Concerning Vocational Rehabilitation and Employment (Disabled Persons), their policies towards people with disabilities vary substantially. This is not to say that the ultimate aim of each of these countries is divergent. Quite the contrary, Denmark, Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom share a common interest in integrating people with disabilities into mainstream society and guaranteeing their rights as citizens. Nevertheless, variations exist in how these goals are met and how people with disabilities are defined as a group.

Danish legislation, for example, does not provide a clear definition of disability and government services are highly decentralised, stressing the importance of local, tailor made responses. Legislation and policy is designed to facilitate and support the integration of people with disabilities into regular structures on equal terms with others and with the necessary compensatory measures. Quotas and affirmative action schemes are thus de-emphasised as most attention is placed on mainstream training, upgrading facilities to accommodate people with disabilities while helping them acquire the necessary skills for employment.

Meanwhile, Germany sets forth a clear legal framework with regard to people with disabilities. The government stresses the necessity for people with disabilities to have skills which allow them to compete in the open labour market. Special measures like quotas and protection against dismissal are designed to ensure that integration does occur. Sheltered workshops and special centres are available to people with disabilities who are unable to find employment on the open labour market.

Spain also explicitly recognises the rights of people with disabilities in its Constitution. The first aim is to integrate people with disabilities into the open labour market and where this is not possible, provide work experience in sheltered workshops. Similar to Denmark, Spain also emphasises decentralised government, thus allowing local authorities to create and implement employment policies concerning people with disabilities. Consequently, the degree to which people with disabilities have been successfully integrated into mainstream employment and education varies from region to region.

The United Kingdom’s approach to people with disabilities continues to undergo a process of revision and adaptation with the emergence of private agencies and a change in attitudes. Quotas and registration schemes dating from 1944 were repealed in 1996. Today, employers in the United Kingdom with 20 or more employees cannot discriminate against a person with a disability in recruitment, promotion, training, working conditions and dismissal. The government therefore clearly recognises the rights of people with disabilities to have equal access to employment. Numerous private and public support initiatives have been established to facilitate the realisation of this policy objective.

1.2 Mainstream versus specialised training and employment for people with disabilities

Whether to emphasise mainstream rather than specialised structures and services for people with disabilities has been a continuous debate with hard to find answers. Some countries like Denmark, however, have given themselves fully to the idea of integrating people with disabilities into mainstream education, training and employment and therefore avoid quotas and protection schemes. More attention is devoted to creating situations of "normalisation" and incorporating the necessary facilities and services for people with disabilities into mainstream society. For example, rather than provide separate schools for people with disabilities, the mainstream approach requires that all schools develop the capacity to enrol people with disabilities by adapting the learning environment (wheel chair accessible and learning tools).

While integrating people with disabilities into the mainstream reduces chances for isolation that can occur with specialised facilities, a rising concern is that quality may eventually suffer with decentralisation. Sceptics fear that the mainstream approach can be inefficient, impersonalised and organised in such a way that some people get overlooked or drop out of the system. Despite hesitations, an overwhelming majority of trainers and educators feel that this approach is the still clearest way of showing people with disabilities that they are welcomed and equal members of society.

At the international level, a disability movement is beginning to gather widespread support. A guiding principle behind this movement is that people with disabilities do not only require improved specialised services or benefits, but must be recognised as full citizens. The movement, likewise, refutes the historical disability model which considers the person with a disability a subject of charity.

If rights refers to the same life opportunities for others, how can these be guaranteed? People with disabilities must be provided the means to make use of these opportunities. Equality must therefore come to mean not only treating people the same despite their differences, but also treating people as equals by accommodating their differences.⁽¹⁾ The movement supports a new and fundamental approach based on the belief of "equal beings, equal rights", asserting the individual's right to plan and manage his/her own life independently with access to the same opportunities. Disability should be understood as acceptance of diversity in all policy areas and in society in general.⁽²⁾

1.3 Defining disabilities

How society as a whole and people with disabilities themselves approach their disability has undergone dramatic changes. The way in which the concept of disability is defined, for example, is no longer limited to the medical context but has acquired a social interpretation. Hearing loss, for example, has medical implications but as concerns an individual's education, training and employment, has an equally important social significance.

According to the United Nations Standard Rules on the Equalisation of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities, disability and handicap are defined as follows:

The term disability summarises a great number of different functional limitations occurring in any population in any country of the world. People may be disabled by physical, intellectual or sensory impairment, medical conditions or mental illness. Such impairments, conditions or illnesses may be permanent or transitory in nature. The term handicap means a loss or limitation of opportunities to take part in the life of the community on an equal level with others. It describes the encounter between the person with a disability and the shortcomings in the environment and in many organised activities in society, for example, information, communication and education, which prevent persons with disabilities from participating on equal terms.⁽³⁾

Each country interprets these definitions differently. Variations naturally lead to gaps and discrepancies in country case studies such as these.

Denmark does not have a legal definition of disability and people with disabilities do not have to officially register themselves as such. A disability is primarily regarded as a relationship between the individual and society. As a person's disability may have an impact on his/her ability to perform in a particular sector, problems must be analysed and solved within the sectors in which they arise, such as transport, education or employment.⁽⁴⁾ This approach is intended to bring about tailor made solutions.

Reduced working capacity by at least 50 per cent, due to physical, mental or social reasons is used as criteria for awarding pensions in Denmark. Registration does occur when a person with a disability applies for a benefit, but is used only for administrative purposes and in relation to a specific legal authority.

Germany defines disabilities among young people or adults as a permanent functional impairment resulting from an irregular physical, mental or psychological condition. People are required to register their disabilities with public officials. Employment quota schemes and access to sheltered work apply to people with a medically certified degree of disability of over 50 per cent or those who have been declared equivalent by the Employment Service with a degree of functional disability over 30 per cent.⁽⁵⁾

In Spain, the expression disability refers to any person whose opportunities for participating in education, work or social activities are reduced as a result of a physical, mental or sensory impairment, whether congenital or not, and which is likely to be permanent. To qualify for programmes run by the public labour market service, people must be registered unemployed and disabled, with a reduction of capacity for work of at least 33 per cent.⁽⁶⁾

In the United Kingdom there is no single definition of disability, various definitions apply depending on the situation. The main differences are related to access to specific services, benefits and allowances, and general policy statements. For example, the Disability Discrimination Act (DDA) 1995 defines a person as disabled if he or she has (or has had) a physical or mental impairment which has a substantial and long-term adverse effect on his or her ability to carry out normal day-to-day activities.⁽⁷⁾

Other definitions are used by two relevant NGOs, the Employers' Forum on Disability (disability is defined "as a physical or sensory disability, learning difficulty or mental health problem, which is regarded as a significant disadvantage in daily life or at work") and the British Council of Organizations of Disabled People which believes disability should be characterized as "the loss or limitation of opportunities to take part in the mainstream of life of the community on an equal level with others due to physical or social barriers."

World-wide, a growing number of people with disabilities are refusing to be categorized into specific disability target groups. At a glance, it might appear that being defined within a specific disability group can create positive results with quotas and protection and is useful as a method for targeting pensions and benefits. Nevertheless, experience has shown that the long-term effects of being "labeled" can be negative and young people are especially sensitive to being categorized and potentially ostracized. For this reason, many youths with disabilities immediately reject proposals and services that set them apart from the norm.⁽⁸⁾

Despite the obvious, negative associations, definitions are also a way of acknowledging that each individual is indeed unique and has different needs and capacities. The definitions themselves do not preclude people from equal opportunities. As noted earlier, equality means equal treatment and opportunity for each individual despite differences. In avoiding definitions, we risk overlooking individual needs and abilities which in turn limit access and hamper full integration.

1.4 European Union Employment Community Initiative

In order to better understand the relationship between disability programmes and programmes for disadvantaged youths, reference will be also made to the European Union Employment Community Initiative within each country study. Funded mainly by the European Social Fund and involving all Member States, this initiative targets groups which face specific difficulties in finding employment.⁽⁹⁾ In accordance with the initiative's guidelines, Member States must articulate their own priorities and develop operational programmes that respond to national, regional, economic and social needs. This study highlights aspects of each country's programme relevant to people with disabilities in general and, more specifically, young people with disabilities.

2. General employment conditions for people with disabilities and youth with disabilities

Young people with disabilities must be viewed as citizens like any other with the right of access to employment, training, information and full adult status. Due to their unique circumstances however, practical consideration must be given to their special needs in training and education. Likewise, young people with disabilities perform better in a supportive environment. Partnerships between key participants in the education, training and employment sectors can facilitate a smoother transition from school to training to working life.⁽¹⁰⁾ The roles that educators, trainers, family and employers play are crucial in determining the eventual degree of integration a young person with a disability will experience in employment.

Effective integration can be achieved if both the complex process of transition into work and the required range of needs can be addressed. To achieve this objective, no single common approach is useful as each person and each situation is different. Integration into employment therefore requires tailor made solutions.⁽¹¹⁾

Independence is often the primary goal of young people with disabilities in their transition to adulthood. Any constraints or limitations experienced in achieving this goal may ultimately hinder integration into the workforce. Support in the form of professional advice on curriculum development, counseling, assessment, training and career planning have a positive impact on young people seeking employment and independence.

The quality of the transition from school to working life is dependent on organizational structures, the nature and the severity of the handicap and a number of other contextual variables including the social environment.⁽¹²⁾ Transition is a process of social orientation that implies status change and role (from student to trainee, from trainee to worker and from dependence to independence) and is, therefore, central to integration into society. Transition does not merely mean playing a new role but requires a change in relationships, routines and self-image.

Transitions occur in three phases: the final years of schooling; further education and vocational training; and entry into the workforce and adult life. The starting point for an individual's transition can vary as young people with disabilities move in and out of mainstream classes, special schools and classes, hospitals or residential institutions at different ages. ⁽¹³⁾

In order to guarantee a smoother transition from school to the workplace, young people with disabilities need to develop goals and identify the role they ultimately want to play in society. This requires an awareness of the opportunities and limitations existing around them as well as self-awareness of their own strengths and talents and the long-term conditions of their disability.

Teachers, trainers and guidance staff need to actively advise and counsel students with disabilities. Balanced efforts should be made to allow the young person to make decisions on his/her own with support from the outside.⁽¹⁴⁾

The learning environment is often influenced by an individual's family. Sometimes support from the family can result in over protection. During the transition phase, parents may become particularly concerned about their child's future and, without help, may inhibit his/her transition into adulthood. Families, therefore, must be constructively involved in the young person's move towards independence.

Choice of vocation can offer great possibilities for self-determination. In offering vocational guidance, advisors must be cautious and reinforce the idea of independent decision making on the part of the young person involved.

Under current provisions, the role of professionals and their ability to work in partnerships is central to the implementation of policies at local and national level. Significant problems can arise with cross sector rivalry amongst professionals resulting in services showing less than a full commitment to a genuine inter-service approach. Discrepancies can occur over funding issues, different viewpoints with regard to the meaning of integration or the concept of independence or available choices and methodology. This rivalry can potentially lead to a transition process which does not involve the individual enough in decision making. Some young people are frustrated by the prospect of dealing with a multiplicity of agencies. Different aspects of the young person's education should therefore be linked to his/her needs and aspirations and rivalries should be recognized and discontinued.⁽¹⁵⁾

Specific measures and programmes carry with them the disadvantage of setting up selection criteria according to the disability making it necessary to be labeled as disabled in order to access them. Such measures and programmes tend to stigmatize those who enter them, lending weight to the idea that people with disabilities are not capable of receiving education in a mainstream environment nor of gaining employment. Such categorizing tends to marginalize the person with a disability and reverses the desired effect.

2.1 The general labour market context

Below are a list of trends recorded across Europe which help to place conditions for people with disabilities into the general context of employment in the EU. ⁽¹⁶⁾

Although unemployment remains high throughout the European Union, Denmark, Spain and the United Kingdom are beginning to see positive growth in employment;

Despite these positive indicators, youth unemployment in Spain and the United Kingdom is still twice as high as adult unemployment (over 20 per cent on average). Denmark and Germany, however, are an exception to this common trend in European countries:

Long-term unemployment increased in 1995 from 48 per cent of the unemployed to over 50 per cent;
Unemployment of women remains higher than that of men in almost all Member States;
Working conditions are gradually changing with an increase in the number of people working at night and on weekends across Europe. Meanwhile, many of the new jobs created in the 1990's were part time. Temporary work accounted for all of the employment increases for men and just under half of the rise for women;
Job losses in large enterprises have largely been compensated by job creation in small and medium sized enterprises;
Companies with fewer than 100 employees have experienced a rise in employment, while those with over 100 have seen a decrease; and
The service sector provided most of the additional jobs, while the decline in employment in agriculture and industry continued;
According to the most recent EU report on employment, employment growth requires an offensive strategy which promotes an increase in demand rather than a defensive strategy based on the sharing of existing jobs. Growth should be driven by greater innovation leading to job creation and consolidating existing jobs;
This offensive strategy requires investments in physical productive capacity, human resources, an entrepreneurial environment and knowledge and skills;
The challenge posed by the onslaught of new technology calls for an urgent response in upgrading the current skills of the workforce. Continuous training programmes based on partnerships between public authorities and enterprises are a necessary component in dealing with the demands of continuous structural change.

As people with disabilities tend to be under educated and under trained, the proposed offensive strategy must actively target this group.

2.2 Employment rates for people with disabilities

Around ten per cent of Europe's population, including young people and the elderly, have disabilities. Although many of these people are capable of working, statistics show that people with disabilities generally encounter more difficulties in obtaining employment and are more likely to remain unemployed for a long time. The rate of unemployment for people with disabilities tends to be two to three times higher than the norm.

Current data reveals that many people with disabilities lack the appropriate qualifications for work. In Spain, 80 per cent of adults with disabilities have not continued their education beyond primary school and only 11 per cent have continued with their education after secondary school. In the United Kingdom, 46 per cent have continued after primary school and 33 per cent after secondary school.⁽¹⁷⁾ These figures support the argument that people with disabilities are at a disadvantage on the open labour market, not because of an inherent incapacity associated with their disabilities, but due to their low level of access to education and training.

The perceptions and attitudes held by employers continue to create obstacles for people with disabilities in securing employment. In many cases, an employer knows very little about employment policies regarding people with disabilities or the abilities of people with disabilities to perform in the workplace. There is an overall shortage of accurate information concerning people with disabilities, allowing prejudices and stigmatisms to persist. Employers do not receive enough support and input during the hiring process, suggesting that trade unions and employers organizations need to improve their representation of people with disabilities. Very few networks exist between the social partners and service providers involved in the employment process for people with disabilities.⁽¹⁸⁾

Workplaces generally remain inappropriately designed to accommodate a workforce with disabilities. Many people with disabilities therefore face exclusion, not on the basis of their skills, but from the inaccessibility of the working environment. For integration to occur, steps must be taken by the employers to upgrade facilities.

Today, with changes in technology and a shift to the computer age, the labour market demands a variety of new professional skills from its labour force. Increasingly, having an advanced education is a person's only guarantee for employment. At the same time, with the widespread use of computers and other technical equipment, less emphasis is being placed on physical strength. People with physical disabilities might therefore find fewer barriers to entry into today's ever changing workforce.

3. Denmark: Employment and training policies for youth with disabilities

The aim of the Danish disability policy is to provide each individual with the means to live as normal a life as possible.⁽¹⁹⁾ Legislation is designed to facilitate the integration of people with disabilities into schools, the open labour market and community life on equal terms with others. In line with this approach, organizations representing people with disabilities uphold the view that positive discrimination in favour of people with disabilities (quota schemes) contradict principles of equality and normalization efforts. Registering disabilities is discouraged because this action assumes that it is possible to categorize and confine disabilities and conditions to a specific definition.

3.1 Policies to promote access to training and employment for people with disabilities in general

Services provided for people with disabilities are based on the principle of solidarity. This implies that everyone is responsible for the individual and that services should be available when needed. The national government is more or less a facilitator, encouraging everyone to take part in improving education and employment quality (including accessibility) for people with disabilities and has therefore created very few national level policies specifically targeting these individuals. Denmark stresses decentralization in government and anticipates action and policy making at the local and sector levels.

In accordance with the principle of sector responsibility, the Ministry of Labour is in charge of employment policy (counseling, job service and adult training programme), the Ministry of Social Affairs is responsible for rehabilitation and sheltered employment (anticipatory pension and disability allowances) and the Ministry of Education is responsible for the education and qualification of people with disabilities. The department of Vocational Education and Training has two offices which deal with special educational assistance. People with disabilities receive guidance, allocation of technical aids and adapted teaching materials, examinations and tests at all vocational colleges.

Policy implementation is placed as close to the people as possible. The central government sets up the relevant statutory and economic framework while local and county authorities implement policy.

3.1.1 Employment policies and programmes

New Partnership For Social Cohesion

⁽²⁰⁾

promote equal opportunities during recruitment;
avoid exclusion within enterprises;
promote the creation of new jobs;
contribute to social integration in deprived areas - particularly among marginalized groups;
implement aggressive manpower policies focusing on a reduction of internal and external stress factors.

3.1.2 Employment Community Initiative

integrate the target group into improved initial and further vocational training and higher education with an emphasis on new technologies, as well as adaptation of workplaces;
improve each individuals qualifications for work through training;
improve upon the skills of training staff by updating them on the use of advanced aids and new technologies;
achieve permanent employment through increased visibility of the skills people with disabilities posses; and
job creation from local and regional initiatives

developing new training cycles, taking in account the individual's expectations and abilities;
improving general vocational skills; and
updating qualifications of counselors, teachers and trainers to enable them to provide the target group with appropriate guidance and education/training.

3.1.3 Regional employment services

rehabilitation centres which assess working capacities and provide vocational training and retraining;
vocational training institutions offering training and retraining courses to facilitate employment (some of these institutions are uniquely designed for people with disabilities);
individual sheltered employment providing work opportunities for people with disabilities in a specially designed work environment within public and private institutions, factories and workshops;⁽²¹⁾
sheltered workshops which, although they are not regarded by the Danish government as vocational training or full status employment, allow people with disabilities to carry out some style of work; and
special day centres providing social skills training and preparation for sheltered workshops.

⁽²²⁾

3.1.4 Education and training

⁽²³⁾

⁽²⁴⁾

⁽²⁵⁾

The Danish Institute for the Blind

3.2 Concluding remarks

People with disabilities are entitled to financial, practical or social support on the basis of need, not the disability itself.⁽²⁶⁾ The principle of equality is fundamental and therefore special legislation for people with disabilities is limited and no official definition of disability exists.

In practice, the success of this policy of integration is limited to training and education while the transition into employment requires more attention. In order to better prepare students for employment, vocational training systems should offer more practical skills opportunities while alternative professions such as handicraft need to be explored. Schools should focus on labour prospects and vocational counselors need to be more dynamic and specialized.

Training programmes must improve upon their understanding of people with disabilities in society and present working conditions. At the same time, young people with disabilities should be encouraged to be independent early on in their studies.

Finally, while the mainstream approach to education and employment is preferred, complementary provisions (enhanced resources, appropriate facilities and innovation) must be more widespread to lead to a greater, more positive impact.⁽²⁷⁾ Mainstream structures and services must become fully accessible to people for with disabilities for complete integration to occur. For mainstream policies to work, the country must not only be wholly committed to this cause, but should make every effort to create the conditions for full integration.

4. Germany: Employment and training policies for youth with disabilities

Germany's first law after the second World War stipulating an employment obligation for people with disabilities was enacted in 1953. In 1974, further legislation was passed securing their integration into the labour market by providing protection against dismissal to individuals with disabilities of over 50 per cent. Following Germany's reunification, a Constitutional amendment was added declaring that no person shall be discriminated against because of race, gender, religious and political beliefs or disability.⁽²⁸⁾

4.1 Policies to promote access to training and employment for people with disabilities in general

The Federal Ministry for Employment and Social Affairs (Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Sozialordnung), the Federal Labour Market Service (Bundesanstalt für Arbeit, BA) and the Regional Assistance Office (Hauptfürsorgestellen) are responsible for employment policies for people with disabilities.

4.1.1 Employment policies and programmes

Quota schemes

Protection against dismissal

Incentives for employers

"Trustworthy persons"

stimulate further hiring of people with disabilities;
·provide assistance and advice to co-workers with disabilities;
encourage the assignment of appropriate employment for people with disabilities;
advise the company on how to avoid redundancy among workers with disabilities; and
help ensure a healthy and secure work environment with reduced risks of injury.

Employment Community Initiative

co-operation between schools and vocational training institutions;
improved networks and links between schools, parents, social workers and trainers;
development of non-profit training and placement agencies with national employment services;
new technology training; and
training in junior firms and support in setting up of businesses.

Sheltered workshops

⁽²⁹⁾

Supported employment

Social firms

4.1.2 Vocational guidance, assessment, training and placement

Vocational guidance

Vocational assessment

Vocational training

Officially recognized training occupation

Mainstream training

Special centres

4.2 Programmes specifically designed for youths with disabilities

About 600 vocational guidance staff are offering services and specialized guidance for young people with disabilities in regional and local labour markets. The main tasks of the counselor is to support the process of transition from school to work.

Specific initiatives and programmes for the preparation of young people for vocational training do exist. In 47 vocational training centre, 14,500 places have been created for young people with disabilities.

In 1997 more than 11,600 people with disabilities participated in training activities in sheltered workshops. It can be assumed that a great majority of these trainees were youths.

The employers organization BFZ Nürnberg in Bavaria offers partial qualification courses with practical job placements in industry. Although these partial qualifications are not nationally recognized, they are approved by local employers and therefore give people with disabilities a substantial advantage in securing a job locally. The combination of practical training supported by opportunities in work placements enable the employers to evaluate the skills and abilities of the person with the disability and allow the trainee to evaluate the suitability of employment opportunities within the company they are placed in.

Participation in a specialized vocational training centre costs between 66 DM and 121 DM/day. ⁽³⁰⁾ If accommodations are included, the average per diem costs are 170 DM (without accommodation). All costs are covered by public services. The per diem costs for mainstream training in trade and technical professions in a normal enterprise or company costs 83 DM.

A significant number (16,700) of young people with disabilities participate in the dual system and thus receive training with mainstream facilities.

4.3 Concluding remarks

So as to smooth the transition from school to training, secondary education curriculum should include more information about the labour market and the conditions students will encounter upon graduation. Trainers tend to share the opinion that schools need to better prepare their students for continued vocational training or employment.

At the same time, shortcomings also exist in the transition from training to employment. Numerous follow-up services, for example, are insufficient and do not have access to enough resources. A vast majority of the job placements are unstable or are simply not feasible because of the limited amount of support activities. Communication between training centres and employers is also relatively weak as a result of decentralized operations. Finally, many training centres need to incorporate social skills training into their curriculum.

The Federal Work Association for special vocational training centres conducts ongoing research on employment of trainee graduates. In 1994, they found that unemployment among people with disabilities was higher than those without. Percentages varied from sector to sector and among professions (up to three times higher in electronics, economics and administration). The following table shows the employment scenario for 2000 young people who graduated from training programs.⁽³¹⁾

1 Year after the end of training	1994 (per cent)	1991 (per cent)
Stable employment (not time limited)	43.4	64.2
Stable employment (time limited)	13.1	13.5
Employment in the trained professional area	24.3	22.6
Size of company
1-9 employees	28.8	23.2
10-49 employees	33.0	27.7
50-99 employees	11.8	12.2
More than 100	26.4	36.9
Men Women	66.2 33.8	70.0 30.0

5. Spain: Employment and training policies for youth with disabilities

The 1978 Constitution guarantees the right of all Spanish citizens to work and seek full employment while at the same time, explicitly recognizing the rights of people with disabilities. According to the 1982 Act on social integration, the first aim of Spain's employment policy for workers with disabilities is to integrate them into the ordinary system of employment and, where this is not possible, incorporate them into special sheltered employment. Today, 60 per cent of workers with disabilities are employed in private enterprises and only 3.7 per cent in public administration. The remaining 20.3 per cent are employed in sheltered workshops and 13 per cent in institutions in the nation's autonomous regions.⁽³²⁾

5.1 Policies to promote access to training and employment for people with disabilities in general

Spain's policies for people with disabilities must be viewed within the context of the overall national employment policy. People with disabilities receive similar benefits to other disadvantaged groups such as unemployed youths. Special measures such as quotas, protection against dismissal and incentives for employers have been created to enhance integration.

5.1.1 Employment policies and programmes

⁽³³⁾

⁽³⁴⁾

Employment Community Initiative

5.1.2 Vocational guidance, assessment and placement

5.1.3 Education and training

⁽³⁵⁾

National Vocational Training and Rehabilitation Plan which includes a series of programmes designed to provide unemployed persons with the qualifications they need to find employment. Courses have a technical and practical component and are conducted in workshops, schools and companies. People with disabilities are eligible for a grant of up to 75 per cent of the minimum wage. After completing the training courses and undergoing the relevant assessments, a vocational certificate is then awarded by the Ministry of Labour and Social Security;
Craft Centres and Training Workshops which are separate from the above-mentioned programmes and target unemployed people with a special emphasis on young people under 25.

5.2 Programmes specifically designed for youths with disabilities

Although young people with disabilities have generally not been targeted within the population of young people or the population of people with disabilities, the current administration has placed youth employment and education at the top of its national priorities. The vocational guidance, assessment and placement services developed by INSERSO, INEM, private organization and autonomous regions are presently better designed to respond to the needs of young people with disabilities.

5.3 Concluding remarks

The social integration act of 1982 stated that non-profit making institutes, associations and foundations set up by disabled people themselves, relatives or legal representatives demand more overall support.

Spain's NGOs published an employment plan for people with disabilities in 1994 where they discussed the shortcomings in the country's current employment policy. More attention should be placed on promoting employment for people with disabilities in the private and public sector and people with disabilities need to be better equipped (improved skills) to compete in today's labour market. This requires improved education and training of people with disabilities, less attention focused on benefits (benefit traps) and more initiatives to adapt environments to the special needs of people with disabilities (wheel chair accessible, enhanced transport). Finally, the country's efforts to decentralize government have created confusion at the expense of people with disabilities and training and employment services require better funding.

6. The United Kingdom: Employment and training policies for youth with disabilities

6.1 Policies to promote access to training and employment for people with disabilities in general

The Disabled Persons (Employment) Act 1944 originated from the need to make provision for people disabled in the Second World War. The Act followed recommendations made by the Tomlinson Committee which had been set up to report on the employment needs of people with disabilities. The Tomlinson Committee considered that the great majority of people with disabilities were capable of taking employment on normal terms but that special measures were needed to help. These measures included a register of people with disabilities, assessment, rehabilitation and training centres, a specialized employment placement service, a quota scheme which placed a statutory duty on employers with 20 or more employees to employ a quota of 3 per cent of registered people with disabilities, a designated employment scheme and the establishment of National and Local Advisory Committees. The Act was administered by (at that time) the Ministry of Labour.⁽³⁶⁾

In the 1960's, the statutory requirement for unemployed claimants to register for work was repealed. The changes in the labour market and in services such as the growth of private agencies and of self-service displays in job centres brought changes in peoples' attitudes towards disability. Although the Government introduced measures to tighten up the 1944 Act, by the 1970's they realized that the quota and registration provisions of the 1944 Act were flawed. After a series of smaller reviews during the 70's and 80's, a wider ranging review was commissioned which started in 1988 and was published in 1990 as the Consultative Document "Employment and Training for People with Disabilities". This document quoted the view of the Public Accounts Committee that the quota scheme was ineffective, outdated and unenforceable.

In January 1995 the Government published their proposals and measures for the Disability Discrimination Bill. The Bill was introduced into parliament on 12 January 1995 and received Royal Assent as the Disability Discrimination Act (DDA) on 8 November 1995. The employment provisions of the DDA came into force on 2 December 1996, repealing the definition of disability, quota, registration and designated employment provisions of the 1944 Act. The DDA makes it unlawful for an employer with 20 or more employees to discriminate against a person with a disability in recruitment, promotion, training, working conditions and dismissal. Further rights against discrimination to access to goods, facilities, services and premises are gradually being introduced over the next five years.

6.1.1 Incentives for employers

Supported workshops and factories: Supported workshops are run by local authorities and voluntary organizations; factories are operated by Remploy. Their main objective is to provide employment for people with severe disabilities who account for the majority of employees in the workshops and factories. The disabled workers have a productivity output of between 30 per cent and 80 per cent of non-disabled employees doing the same or similar work. Remploy is a Government sponsored private company set up in 1945 to provide employment and training for people with severe disabilities. The company has 94 factories throughout Great Britain, manufacturing a variety of products;
Supported Placements (SPS) and Interwork: Local authorities and voluntary organizations sponsor SPS while host employers provide the work and contribute to the costs of the placements. The Employment Service (ES) makes payments to the sponsors in accordance with its supported employment contracting arrangements. SPS workers receive the same wages as the hosts direct employees doing the same or similar work. Remploy runs its own version of SPS called Interwork which also places people on contract with commercial and industrial companies.

6.1.2 Affirmative action, equal rights and anti-discrimination regulations

6.1.3 The Employment Service and working in partnership

6.1.4 Employment Community Initiative

the matching of training and work experience with information and support measures;
improving the delivery of services based on the individual needs of people with disabilities and strengthens co-operation between the professionals and actors in the field;
changing attitudes amongst employers, trade unions and other local actors in pursuit of more holistic approaches; and
involving people with disabilities as actors in their own progress towards open employment.

the development of improved training and employment opportunities for young people, especially those at risk because of low levels of formal qualifications; or
who are unemployed for a long time;
the development of innovative training, guidance and employment programmes
for young people.

6.2 Programmes and services

People with disabilities should have priority in mainstream employment and training programmes.

6.2.1 Guidance

6.2.2 Training

6.2.3 Employment

6.3 Education in the United Kingdom

School is compulsory until the age of 16. There are a number of options for young people who want to continue their education after school. The choice of college will depend on the young person's preference. The options are:

6.3.1 Higher education institutions

6.3.2 Further Education Colleges

6.3.3 Independent specialist colleges for students with learning difficulties or disabilities

6.4 Implementation of training and employment policies

Responsibility for policies for the education, training and employment of people with disabilities and their implementation in Great Britain falls to constituent parts of the Department for Education and Employment (DfEE) and the Scottish and Welsh Offices. The Employment Service, which is an executive agency of the DfEE, is responsible for co-ordinating the delivery of disability programmes.

The National Advisory Council on Employment of People with Disabilities was set up to advise the Secretary of State for Education and Employment on the employment, self employment and training of people with disabilities. In the council there are three members representing employers organizations and three members representing employees organizations.

6.5 Discussion on training and employment policies

6.5.1 Quotas

6.5.2 Services

7. Conclusions and recommendations

Denmark, Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom continue to confront challenges with the integration of people with disabilities in employment and education. Shortcomings can still be found in social structures, services for employers, information flow and labour market policies. The most pressing problem is that people with disabilities do not receive the appropriate qualifications required for employment and training initiatives need to be tailored more to the current demands of the labour market.

Research and data

With the exception of Germany, data and statistics on youths with disabilities remain insufficient in many countries. For this reason, more studies relevant to the issues discussed in this report need to be carried out. Although many specific labour policies regarding people with disabilities do in fact exist, very few people know about them and how they apply to youth with disabilities. Likewise, research on youth in general needs to include more disability studies.

Despite this report's comprehensive stock of valuable information, difficulties were nevertheless encountered in locating information specifically related to youth with disabilities. This gap in the material is one illustration of the frustrating conditions faced by these individuals. In order for policies and programmes to reflect the needs and aspirations of youth with disabilities, more interest must be generated, data collected and comprehensive studies carried out. Until then, initiatives run the risk of being misdirected and will continue to fall short of the objective to improve employment opportunities.

Awareness raising

Once data and studies become available, information flows must be enhanced as well. As discussed in this report, employers lack a clear understanding of the qualifications and capacities of youth with disability and this unawareness perpetuates hiring practices which disfavour people with disabilities. In order to improve chances for employment, widespread and informed awareness raising campaigns must be conducted. Educators, trainers and career placement services are best positioned to carry out these initiatives effectively.

Involving young people with disabilities themselves in planning

Young people with disabilities should have a proactive role in planning for their own future. Services and support should not be an obstacle but should provide assistance to young people in realizing their personal goals. Guidance counselors, educators and family should be careful not to deprive young people of their independence while providing support.

Involving young people in the decision making is also a means of generating and maintaining their interest in the hope that they are not overlooked by or do not drop out of the system. Although the ultimate aim of many education and employment policies is to fully integrate people with disabilities into mainstream society, sceptics fear that the potential exist for some youths to "fall through the cracks." In Spain, for example, 20 per cent of adults with disabilities discontinued their education after primary school, which can possibly be explained by a lack of proper support or access. Mainstreaming policies should be accompanied by follow-up services and counseling similar to the curator system in Denmark which supports young people throughout their education and especially during that critical period between schooling and employment. These support mechanisms need to become more widespread and routinely incorporated into education and training.

Guidance, assessment and information

The countries reviewed in this study need to continue with their investments in vocational guidance which effectively meets the needs of people with disabilities at the regional level. Traditional assessment systems occasionally fail to measure the skills and knowledge possessed by an individual and are especially unreliable for people with disabilities. These must therefore be revised and concentrated at the local level to better ensure tailor made solutions.

Guidance and information must be presented to young people in a manner that will seem attractive and relevant to their lives. It should begin early and remain tied to the young person's natural environment. All aspects of a young person's life need to be considered in order for guidance to be truly effective. As vocational assessment is an indispensable tool for successful transitions into employment, more emphasis should be put on quality. Equipment and facilities need to be accurately identified during an initial assessment period. For example, people with hearing or vision impairments require advanced communication resources.

Education and the labour market

Within secondary education, educators need to develop better links between practical and theoretical knowledge. New teaching methods should emphasize the importance of combining theory and practice, and developing each individual's personal qualities by involving the learner more actively in the educational process. As seen with the examples in the United Kingdom, efforts to provide young people with more interactive, hands on experience prior to the search for employment should continue as this not only enhances skills, but builds confidence and insight into job preferences.

In preparing students for life after graduation, educators themselves need more practical information about labour market conditions and training. This commitment requires improved and continued communication with employers and trainers.

Improving training programmes

Within training, it is becoming more important for trainees to gain as much working experience as possible so as to enhance their understanding of labour market conditions and respond accordingly. Likewise, trainers cannot neglect the educational aspect of vocational training in general. Many centres need to improve upon the quality of their materials and resources which have a tendency to be outdated.

Vocational training should not be limited to providing a person with new skills but should be holistic in its approach; trainees should acquire comprehensive vocational competence through practical and theoretical training geared to the real needs of employers. Classroom teaching should be combined with practical work experience and training in firms. Before completing their training, students should have improved communication skills, exposure to responsibility and team spirit.

Trainers need to maintain open dialogue with employers so as to develop an understanding of labour market demands and the skills they need to teach their students. It might even be suggested that some trainers participate in a training programme inside a company or industry. Likewise, investments in modern information technology will enhance overall training quality and content.

Efforts need to be undertaken to expose people with disabilities to new technologies. Knowledge in these areas will greatly enhance their future integration into the labour market.

Self-employment also needs to be presented and encouraged as an available and viable option.

Governments like the UK have experienced positive results with private services for training. Quality can benefit greatly from private sector investments and management.

A successfully clear, progressive and nationally accepted qualification system is indispensable for placement of youth with disabilities after training. The distinction between academic qualifications and practical job qualifications must be recognized so that efforts are undertaken to provide students with both.

Mainstream training

Mainstream training should not undermine the need for solidarity and social-cultural assimilation among people with disabilities. Young people with disabilities must maintain their right to make their own informed choices. Within mainstream systems, a balance must be struck with the mixture of professional, functional and medical rehabilitation. This style of training does not only bring benefits to the person with a disability, but to all concerned parties. Better training materials combined with more flexible and individualized approaches improve the overall quality of training for everyone.

Specific training programmes for young people with disabilities

In addition to the introduction of quality standards, specialized centres are starting to use names like "Profi-centre" and "Resource-centre", thus illustrating their growing commitment to integrating realistic criteria that reflects the current demands of the labour market into their training. More centres want to create local oriented responses and programmes which are better suited to the needs of youths with disabilities. Specialized training, similar to mainstream training, must continue to respect the right of people with disabilities to make their own informed choices.

Co-ordinating local actions

Successful approaches to integration are very much dependent on the policies and activities of the various agencies and individuals and their effective co-ordination at the local level. This requires building networks or partnerships at regional or local level between public authorities, education and training providers, guidance and employment services, employers and others involved in the labour market as well as NGOs representing people with disabilities. All parties engaged in the process should share responsibility.

The role of the unions

On the basis of their individual expertise and influence, unions should broaden the scope of their political and national priorities to include the representation of people with disabilities. Unions are well situated to have an impact on education and employment policies affecting people with disabilities as they are already committed to defending and promoting workers' rights and improving working conditions.

Job search

Experience shows that targeted job search measures consistently bring about positive results. Candidates are often ill-equipped and ill-prepared to promote themselves and competitively negotiate with an employer; they therefore greatly benefit from professional assistance. The most effective systems are those which provide continuous support throughout a young person's job search and transition from school to work, providing youths a voice in cases where they would otherwise remain unheard.

Promoting job creation

Similar to the current demands on overall employment policies, policies specifically targeted to youth with disabilities need to adopt offensive strategies which promote an increase in demand. As mentioned in the second section of this report, growth should be driven by greater innovation leading to job creation. This in turn must be fed by investments in physical productive capacity, human resources, knowledge and skills. The strategies devised and applied to the general population remain relevant to people with disabilities and should therefore be taken as a cue for action.

Employers must become actively involved in trying to find solutions to the challenges associated with integrating people with disabilities into the open labour market. A growing number of programmes in Denmark, Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom encourage internships inside companies or simulated work environments. Programmes also exist which offer youth with disabilities combinations of training and subsidized work, with a period of work experience in an enterprise where the employers receive subsidies.

The examples in Denmark (the New Partnership for Social Cohesion) and the United Kingdom (the disability symbol) underline the importance of generating commitments from employers to revise their hiring policies. Companies like Pressalit which agree to hire young people with disabilities as apprentices are more likely to hire people with disabilities in future. At the same time, companies are able to gain a better understanding of the competencies of these individuals through a constructive arrangement whereby the apprentice is hired for a limited time (six months) thus affording the company the opportunity to asses his/her competencies. In many cases, this set-up has a similar outcome as awareness raising. As noted earlier, many employers adhere to stereotypes for lack of clearer insight. Revised hiring policies sometimes lead to positive experiences and a subsequent change in attitude.

Commitment on the part of employers to hire people with disability is only one means of improving the integration of these individuals into employment. Attention must also be focused on adapting workplaces to the needs of people with disabilities. Denmark's New Partnership for Social Cohesion is a move in this direction, as companies take responsibility to invest in their own working environments to better accommodate the needs of a diverse workforce.

References

General

Council of Europe. 1988. Legislation on the rehabilitation of disabled people. Strasbourg. European Commission. 1996. "Towards equal opportunities for disabled people." Helios II.

European Commission. 1996. "Transition towards work: a concerted action." Helios II. Empowering disabled people into economic and independent life. Results of the Helios thematic group NR. 2.

European Commission. 1996. "Opening access into employment for people with a visual disability." Helios II. Results of the Helios thematic group NR. 7.

European Commission. 1996. "Vocational training: the individual dimensions." Helios II. Results of the Helios thematic group NR. 3.

European Commission. 1995. "Transition and co-operation." Helios II. E.I.A. Annual reports.

European Commission. 1996. "Europeans working together." Helios II. Seminar report. Belfast.

European Commission. 1995. "Educational work at all levels of education." Helios II. E.I.A. Annual reports.

European Commission. 1996. "Moving from one educational level to another: preparing for transition." Helios II. Results of the Helios thematic group NR. 10.

European Commission. 1996. "Socialization and preparation for independent living: vocational training and education of disabled adults." Helios II. Results of the Helios thematic group Nr. 12.

European Commission. 1996. "European reflections: enhancing co-operation between mainstream and special education." Helios II. Results of the Helios thematic group Nr. 9.

European Commission. 1995. Eurostat. Disabled persons: statistical data.

European Commission. 1996. Employment in Europe. Employment and Social Affairs.

European Commission. 1996. "Better employment opportunities for people with disabilities." Horizon.

European Commission. 1996. "New paths to employment for young people." Youthstart.

European Commission. 1994. "Strategies to improve young people's access to and their progression within initial vocational training." Youthstart.

European Social Fund. 1995. Employment Community Initiative: summaries of the Member States Operational Programmes.

Leichsenring, K.; Strumple, C. 1994. Eurosocial. Employment policies for people with disabilities in the UN - European region. Wien.

Lunt, N.; Thornton, P. 1993. Employment policies for disabled people. University of York.

International Labour Office. 1983. Conference internationale du travail. Recommandation No. 168. Convention No. 159 Concerning Vocational Rehabilitation and Employment (Disabled Person). Geneve.

Invisible citizens. Disabled persons status in the European Treaties. 1995, Denmark

Denmark

Ministry of Social Affairs. 1996. New Partnership for Social Cohesion. Denmark.

Ministry of Education. 1996. Education and training at vocational colleges in Denmark. Denmark.

Germany

Berufsberatung und Ausbildung. 1997. Berufliche Rehabilitation junger Menschen (Handbuch für Schule Berufsberatung und Ausbildung).

Bundesanstalt für Arbeit. 1994. "Berufsberatung fûr Menschen mit Behinderungen." Seminar und europäische Konferenz, Europäische Kommission. Nürnberg.

Bundesanstalt für Arbeit. 1996. "Arbeitsmarkt in Zahlen." Berufliche Rehabilitation.

Blaschke, D.; König, P. 1989. Berufliche Ausbildung jugendlicher Rehabilitanden.

Bordel, R; Butzke, F. 1989. Leben ohne Beruf ?

Brattig,V. 1995. Orientierungs-und Entscheidungshilfen für die berufliche Zukunft durch Berufsfindungs-und Arbeitserprobungsmassnahmen.

Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Sozialordnung. 1995. The integration of disabled persons in the Federal Republic of Germany.

Spain

Consejo Economico y Social. 1995. Informe sobre la situacion del empleo de las personas con discapacidad y propuestas para su rectivacion. Madrid.

Consejo Espanol de Representantes de Minusvalidos. 1994. Plan para reactivacion del empleo de las personas con discapacidad. Madrid.

United Kingdom

Making connections (a guide for agencies helping young people with disabilities make the transition from school to adulthood).

Reguera , L. 1995. A change in outlook: from work to school.

Samoy, E. 1992. Sheltered employment in the European Community.

Annex I

Case Studies

1. Introduction

The intention behind these case studies is not to illustrate specific policies, legislation or programmes, but to present real situations for young people with disabilities which demonstrate the importance of:

methodologies able to discover and promote skills and to provide accessible information;
interdisciplinary co-operation aiming to develop a coherent and holistic professional perspective;
linking training with very narrow labour market contacts;
the commitment by companies to develop a proactive policy for disadvantaged people; and
the commitment of local communities to promote co-operation among their services and to offer jobs.
The case studies aim to underline the principles of a modern training and employment policy which run through the foregoing material. Firstly, training and employment is linked with legal and ethical considerations such as equal participation, valuing disabled people, the right of access to training and employment and the right of access to information; secondly, practical considerations must be recognized mainly in the form of preparation for employment and thirdly, strategic considerations must be recognized in the form of the development of a supportive environment.

1.2 Supported employment in Spain

The interaction of public services in Mallorca aiming at the employment of severely disabled people in the open labour market.⁽³⁷⁾

Josep is 30 years old. He is severely mentally retarded and suffers from secondary epilepsy. INSERSO has classified him as 100 per cent handicapped. At the age of 12 years his local municipality had him and his brother of 14 years, who was also severely mentally retarded, committed to the psychiatric hospital in Palma.

The two brothers are the only children of a married couple who live in a country village of about 3,000 inhabitants in Mallorca (España). Their father is a farmer and their mother a housewife. The principal factor affecting this family, however, has been the alcoholism of the mother which originated before the marriage and presumably had a bearing on both pregnancies. As small children both brothers were neglected and suffered not only from a severe lack of affection and care, but also from a certain amount of physical and mental maltreatment.

During the long period of confinement in the psychiatric hospital (18 years), the treatment Josep received was basically a combination of adherence to an institutional lifestyle and medication. His activities were reduced to the most basic elements of daily life: meals, personal cleanliness and little else. There were no outings or other interesting activities. During these years of institutionalization the parents did not entirely sever contact with their children.

Before being selected to participate in the supported employment programme in 1992, Josep received an assistance pension of about 30,000 PTA a month.

Intervention

The transition of Josep from an institutionalized life was possible thanks to the accumulation of efforts made by different organizations and people. There was a willingness to co-ordinate the work, the municipality offered resources and the key partners shared a common philosophy on normalization. Four main areas were identified:

The individual's environment

A technical team in the hospital itself (psychiatrists, social workers) and the job coach of the supported employment programme began the process of training including the development of social skills required to adapt Josep to his work and to his new social environment.

Family environment

Professionals from the municipality (social worker and family counselor) worked together to prepare the family to actively help towards the reinsertion of their son. This led to the setting up of guidelines for behaviour between parents and son, to helping the mother face up to her alcohol addiction and to giving tasks to each member of the family.

Community environment

A Social Action Group belonging to the voluntary workers of the local parish church became involved in the activity. This was of great importance because it meant that Josep was better accepted by the people in his village. Voluntary workers introduced him to social activities, walks, local events, sports - football, basket ball and in summer swimming and visits to the café in the main square.

Work environment

This has been the area where the "Supported Employment" programme came into action, it has been indispensable for the integration of Josep into work and the community. The vital element which could initiate the whole process was the readiness of the town hall authorities to employ Josep as a road worker carrying out maintenance work, cleaning and other auxiliary work as a member of the municipal work force.

Present situation

Josep is no longer a patient of the psychiatric hospital. He is well integrated into the community, he maintains sufficient levels of social behaviour (hygiene, personal appearance and relationships) and he continues to do his job - his contract has been renewed several times.

His work is a fundamental part of his reinsertion and independence. INSERSO had classified Josep as "not suitable for competitive work." Our intervention was closely monitored . If we managed to integrate him into a job on the open market, INSERSO would have to completely revise their evaluation criteria.

Josep's job gives him a salary and allows him to pay his own way (he has, for instance, completely renewed his teeth) as well as to contribute to the household expenses. He has given up the pension he used to receive and is happy when he goes to the bank to withdraw his earned money. His contribution to the domestic economy has made it possible to install a modern bathroom in their home - resulting in a higher standard of hygiene in the family which has, in turn, led to a greater acceptance by the neighbourhood.

The social reinsertion of Josep can already be considered as a fact. To round off this process, consideration is being given to the idea that his brother, who is still in the psychiatric hospital, should begin periodic and controlled trips home and the aim is to improve the quality of his life in the future.

1.3 Vocational Training for young people with brain injuries in Germany

The vocational training centre for initial vocational training is part of a large geographically distributed network of similar institutions in Germany.⁽³⁸⁾

Experience suggests that people with brain injuries are facing complex limitations in different degrees. They are often people with multiple disabilities. After an accident people are forced to adapt toward a new of life. Often it is difficult to accept the new reality. They are also often faced with psychological problems, a lack of self esteem or even full blown depressive illness.

If an accident occurs at the beginning of a training period it is likely that existing career plans will need to be changed. In order to create time and opportunity for further planning, a vocational assessment period is necessary. Many people use this period to participate in related training activities such as improving motor, cognitive and social capacities.

Training staff are qualified in coping with learning and work-difficulties as well as behaviour problems. Training is usually undertaken in small groups. Accommodation is available and there are facilities for leisure activities. Comprehensive medical facilities are also available. The psychological service provides assistance in the development of skills and general confidence. It is the careful co-ordination of all these activities which ensures success in the implementation of the training and rehabilitation plan.

To illustrate the co-ordination of resources two examples are presented:

Annex II

Employment and population indicators

The International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities and Handicaps (ICIDH) gives a typology of the three dimensions of disability (in the broad sense).⁽³⁹⁾ These include:

impairment - any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological, or anatomical structure or function;
disability - any restriction or lack (resulting from impairment) of ability to perform an activity in the manner or range considered normal for a human being; and
handicap - a disadvantage for a given individual, resulting from an impairment or a disability, that limits or prevents the fulfilment of a role that is normal (depending on age, sex, and social and cultural factors) for that individual.

Most surveys concentrate on impairment and disability while handicap, in the strict sense, is not always covered. Spain is the only country whose survey distinguishes between the three concepts of the ICIDH.

Registered unemployed, within the context of this report, refers to "persons without work who have registered at public employment offices, are seeking work and are available for work immediately". In Denmark, Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom, youths seeking their first job are included in the unemployment statistics once they have registered at employment offices. Persons who are not working and who are receiving pensions other than retirement pensions may register as unemployed and are included in the figures. Denmark is an exception to this rule; persons in receipt of disability pensions from one of the statutory pension insurance funds are not included in the unemployment count (while persons in receipt of other pensions may be included).

In 1995, the number of young people entering the labour force in Denmark, Germany and the United Kingdom had decreased accordingly with the overall drop in the population of people within the 15 to 24 age group. Spain, where the number of young people is actually increasing, is an exception to this demographic trend across Europe.

I. General population

	Denmark	Germany	Spain	United Kingdom
Total population (000) ⁽⁴⁰⁾	5,224	81,622	39,205	58,605
total population with disabilities	12.2 per cent (estimate)⁽⁴¹⁾	8 per cent ⁽⁴²⁾	15.2 per cent⁽⁴³⁾	12.1 per cent⁽⁴⁴⁾
Population of working age (000) (15-64)⁽⁴⁵⁾	3,489	54,799	25,936	37,411
working age with disabilities	no data	(3.1 per cent) 1,700.000⁽⁴⁶⁾	(4.8 per cent) 1,234.000⁽⁴⁷⁾	(4.5 per cent) 1,700.000

II. Key employment indicators

	Denmark	Germany	Spain	United Kingdom
Employment rate⁽⁴⁸⁾	75.6 per cent	63.7 per cent	46.4 per cent	70 per cent
Employment rate people with disabilities (16-19 yrs old)	no data	no data	24.7 per cent⁽⁴⁹⁾	53.8 per cent⁽⁵⁰⁾
Employment rate people with disabilities	no data	16.4 per cent (age group 16-24	56.6 per cent (age group 20-24)

III. Employment of people with disabilities in sheltered workshops

	Denmark	Germany	Spain	United Kingdom
Total employment	7,664	140,000	15,558	14,160
Men	58 per cent	57 per cent	no data	75 per cent
Women	42 per cent	43 per cent	no data	25 per cent
Mental handicaps (learning difficulties - UK)	56 per cent	82.9 per cent	83 per cent	16.3 per cent
Physical disabilities (handicap - Spain)	32 per cent	7.3 per cent	13 per cent	47 per cent
Mental health problems	10 per cent	9.7 per cent	no data	17.6 per cent
Sensory disabilities (handicap - Spain)	1per cent	no data	4 per cent	15.1 per cent

IV. Youth in education

	15-19 yrs old per cent	20-24 yrs old per cent
Denmark	82.3	50
Germany	93	39.1
Spain	79.1	41.8
The United Kingdom	71.2	23.6

Notes

1. Madame Justice Rosalie Abella. 1984. Equality in employment, A Royal Commission Report. Ottawa.

2. Marita Iglesias. personal communication. 1997. Helios II. Interim evaluation report. 1996.

3. The United Nations.1994. Standard Rules on the Equalisation of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities.

4. Finn Hansen. 1994. "Mandatory employment or equal opportunities?"Eurosocial. Employment policies for people with disabilities in the UN European region.

5. Horst Frehe. article in Eurosocial.

6. N. Lunt and P. Thornton. 1993. Employment policies for disabled people. University of York.

7. The Chronically Sick and Disabled Person Act 1970 (refers to the National Assistance Act 1948) gives local authorities the power to make arrangements for promoting the welfare of "persons who are blind, deaf or dumb, and other persons who are substantially and permanently handicapped by illness, injury, or congenital deformity or such other disability as may be prescribed by the Minister". Alternative definitions (incapacity for work, degree of disablement) are used for accessing sick or invalidity pay or benefit, severe disablement allowance or industrial injuries benefits and war disablement pension. The Employment Service uses the DDA definition. People referred to PACTs (Placement, Assessment and Counselling Teams) for assistance are those who are felt to need a significant amount of extra help (assessment or counselling) before they can be considered to be job ready or need the personal intervention or influence of a team member with a prospective employer.

8. R. Bordel and F. Butzke. 1989. Leben ohne Beruf ?

9. European Social Fund. 1995. Employment Community Initiative: summaries of the Member States Operational Programmes.

10. European Commission. 1996."Towards equal opportunities for disabled people." Helios II: European guide of good practice.

11. European Commission. 1996."Transition towards work: a concerted action." Helios II.

12. L. Reguera. 1995. A change in outlook: from work to school.

13. Marita Iglesias. 1997. personal communication. Disability and poverty are often closely connected. Socio-cultural and economic deprivation will clearly create additional obstacles. This effect is emphasised in rural areas where issues of physical access and available employment are already acknowledged as problematic for able bodied people. These factors are particularly hostile to women with disabilities.

14. Professionals from educational, social and medical backgrounds and settings have differing views of each others competencies. For example, medically trained personnel are sometimes regarded as superior to professionals in the social field. Similarly, those working in special schools or in sheltered workshops do not necessarily have the same vision of the educational needs and potential of the disabled person as those who are working for integration in mainstream settings.

15. European Commission. 1996. "Socialisation and preparation for independent living: vocational training and education of disabled adults." Helios II.

16. European Commission. "Employment in Europe 1996." Directorate-General for Employment, Industrial Relations and Social Affairs.

17. European Commission. 1996. Helios II.

18. European Commission. 1996. Helios II. EIA Annual Reports. 1996.

19. Finn Hansen.

20. Ministry of Social Affairs. 1996. Examples from three Danish companies. Booklet.

21. If the person with a disability has some capacity to work, public funds cover a maximum of 50 per cent of the minimum wage and the employer covers the remaining 50 per cent. In order to qualify, the person with a disability must have made one or more attempts to be rehabilitated without finding employment.

22. Grammenos. 1993.

23. A research project was recently carried out by the Social Research Institute in Copenhagen and examines the involvement of disabled people in the mainstream training programmes. The results of the study are not yet available.

24. Henning Sletved. Ministry for Education. 1997. Undervisningsministeriet.

25. N. Lunt and P. Thornton. 1993.

26. About 21,000 people receive anticipatory pension on health grounds.

27. Finn Hansen. 1997. Institute for the Blind. personal communication.

28. The main sources include: Horst Frehe. 1994. "Mandatory employment or equal opportunities?" Eurosocial; E. Samoy. 1992. Sheltered employment in the European Community; Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Sozialordnung; The integration of disabled persons in the Federal Republic of Germany.

29. Samoy.1991.

30. Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung. 1996.

31. BAG. BBW Nachbefragungsergebnisse der Bunderarbeitsgemeinschaft der Berufsbildungswerke fur 1994.

32. The main sources include: N. Lunt and P. Thornton. October 1993. Employment policies for disabled people. University of York; Projyecto INEM-INSERSO; "Guia para Empleo." 1993. Horizon.; Council of Europe. 1988. Legislation on the rehabilitation of disabled people.

33. INEM.

34. Some sheltered workshops function as occupational centres and thus do not emphasise productive work and view participants more as clients than workers. Access to both types of centres is based on the productivity of the worker.

35. 1996. "Moving from one educational level to another: preparing for transition."Helios II. Vocational Training; Council of Europe, Legislation on the rehabilitation of disabled people.

36. The main sources include: Eurosocial; N. Lunt and P. Thornton; E. Samoy 1992.

37. Fernando Bellver. Director of Social Services. Consell Insular de Mallorca.

38. V. Brattig. Leiter des Reha-Fachdienstes des Berufsbildungswerkes, Annastift. Hannover.

39. Eurostat. 1995. Statistics in focus.

40. Employment in Europe, European Commission.1996

41. Eurostat.Statistics in Focus.1995

42. The Integration for Disabled Persons in the Federal Republic of Germany, BMA. 1995

43. Informe sobre la situacion del empleo de las personas con discapacidad y propuestas para su reactivacion.October 1995. This study mainly presents data from an 1986 national survey undertaken by the National Statistical Institute which used the International Classification System. In this study a distinction was made between impairment disability and handicap. The data, with regard to disabled people, are provided by INSERSO "Plan Para La Reactividad Del Empleo De Las Personas Con Discapacidad. CERMI. Madrid 1994

44. Statistics in Focus. Eurostat.1995

45. Employment in Europe, European Commission. 1996

46. The Integration for Disabled Persons in the Federal Republic of Germany. BMA.1995

47. Employment Community Initiative. Operational Programme Spain/United Kingdom. December 1995

48. Employment in Europe, European Commission.1996

49. Employment Community Initiative. Operational Programme Spain/United Kingdom. December 1995

50. Labour Force Survey, United Kingdom.Spring 1996

Updated by AdT. Approved by WS. Last update: May 28, 1999.

EMPLOYMENT AND TRAINING PAPERS21 Education, employment and training policies and programmes for youth with disabilities in four European countries

Action Programme on Youth Unemployment Clement Russell

Contents